Sleep

Why do some people have trouble sleeping?

   The amount of sleep that we need varies among individuals. As the book states, normally we need about 7 1/2 hours of sleep, but some people can get by with only 3 hours of sleep and feel no consequences. Which I think is pretty extraordinary considering I am among those people who treasures every moment I am sleeping. If I have not slept at least 6 hours I feel like crap. There are varied types of sleeping disorders which are referred to as insomnia, which I am sure everyone has heard the word before, but the Wikipedia definition is as follows, "inability to fall asleep or stay asleep as long as desired." The two main questions that arise when trying to diagnose someone experiencing signs of insomnia would be, "Do you experience difficulty sleeping?" or "Do you have difficulty falling or staying asleep?"

   The causes of insomnia can vary. These would include: noise, uncomfortable temperatures, stress, pain, diet,and medications, but insomnia cannot just be brought on by outside sources it can also come from problems within the body. Insomnia can also be the result of epilepsy, Parkinson’s disease, depression, brain tumors, anxiety, or other conditions. I even read in the book that some infants have trouble sleeping because they are "milk-intolerant" and their mother does not realize it and feeds them milk before bedtime. Another reason why people can suffer from insomnia is just the mere fact that before they fall asleep they are thinking about things they do not want to take on when they awake. Simply rearranging some tasks can help a person sleep better at night. 

   The book mentions about 5 different types of insomnia, but I will touch on one kind of insomnia. One branch of insomnia is referred to as sleep apnea, which is the "impaired ability to breathe while sleeping." Individuals with sleep apnea have breathless periods of more or less a minute which causes them to awaken gasping for breath.  Some people may not notice that they in fact do awaken throughout the night, but the consequences are noticeable throughout their day. They would experience things such as impaired attention, depression, being more sleepier throughout the day than usual, and sometimes heart problems. People with this condition are advised to lose weight and refrain from alcohol...imagine that.

The following brief video explains the affects of sleep apnea and the way someone can improve their condition.

Sex

   As the book states, gender identity is how we identify sexually and what we call ourselves. The differences that result from people’s thinking about themselves as male or female are gender differences.Most people will accept their gender identity which matches their external appearance. However, there are some people who have a tough time trying to adapt to the body and identity they were given. 

   A genetic male who has low levels of testosterone or a mutation of the testosterone receptors may develop a female or intermediate appearance. A genetic female who is exposed to more testosterone than the average female can be partly masculinized. The most common cause of the condition and explanation is what is known to be congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH), which is over development of

the adrenal glands from birth. People have 2 adrenal glands, one located on top of each of their kidneys. These glands make hormones, cortisol and aldosterone, that are essential for life. People who have congenital adrenal hyperplasia lack an enzyme that the adrenal gland needs to make the hormones. About 1 in 10,000 to 18,000 children are born with congenital adrenal hyperplasia.
   Symptoms will vary, depending on the type of congenital adrenal hyperplasia someone has and their age when the disorder is diagnosed. Children with milder forms may not have signs or symptoms of congenital adrenal hyperplasia and may not be diagnosed until as late as adolescence. Girls with a more severe form often have abnormal genitals at birth and may be diagnosed before symptoms appear. Boys will appear normal at birth even if they have a more severe form. There is also a milder form of CAH. Girls with a milder form with have symptoms such as abnormal menstrual cycles or lack of one, excessive hair or facial growth, early appearance of pubic or armpit hair. Boys with the milder form would appear normal at birth, but would more than likely go through puberty at an earlier age. 

   I would not call this a disease, but I would refer to this as some sort of abnormality. There is treatment for trying to regulate the persons body to the sex that they are meant to be, like medications. There is other routes such as having surgery to correct abnormal looking genitals so that it looks like the person is only one sex. This is something that can confuse any person, especially when they are younger and they are trying to figure out who they are. Having congenital adrenal hyperplasia can be a really hard thing to live on, but there are support groups for people who are going through such things and treatment available...Here is a video that talks about the risks of having CAH and how dangerous it can be if not detected early on in life. 

  

Pain, Olfaction, Pheromones, and Synaesthesia

   Pain is an unpleasant feeling often caused by intense or damaging stimuli that is triggered in the nervous system. Pain can be sharp or dull. It maybe come or go or it can have lasting affects. Examples of pain are: stubbing a toe, burning a finger, putting alcohol on a cut, and bumping the "funny bone." You could feel pain in one area of the body or all over (ex. when muscles ache because of the flu.)

   Medical experts would say that pain is  necessary in determining certain types of medical problems. Without the feeling of pain a person might not know that they have problems within their body. Pain motivates the individual to withdraw from damaging situations, to protect a damaged body part while it heals, and to avoid similar experiences in the future. But what about those who simply cannot feel pain? They would have a complex/dangerous life considering they would never know their limits. Imagine having to constantly care for someone who cannot feel pain. Something daily such as eating, taking a shower, using the restroom could result in a serious injury.

   I found an interesting video about a little girl who was diagnosed with

Hereditary Sensory Autonomic Neuropathy. Within this disease there are also different types of sub ones that stem from HSA. This is a rare condition that has only been diagnosed in a handful of people and affects the sensory nerves. This is a disease in which you cannot feel pain and anything you do can cause a risk to your health. I find this to be very sad and I hope we can advance in the research towards this disease to hopefully be able to find a cause and a way of preventing or treating it...

 

Learning, Memory, and Amnesia

Amnesia 

   This is a condition in which one's memory is lost. The memory can be either completely or partially lost due to the extent of damage that was caused. . Memory appears to be stored in several parts of the limbic system of the brain.These structures include the thalamus, which lies within the center of your brain, and the hippocampal formations, which are located within the temporal lobes of your brain. Any condition that interferes with the function of this system can cause amnesia.Possible causes of amnesia include, but are not limited to: stroke, brain inflammation, long-term alcohol abuse, and tumors in areas of brain that control memory. 

   People with amnesia usually know who they are, but may have trouble learning new information and forming new memories this is what is referred to as anterograde amnesia. Another component of this illness is called, retrograde amnesia what this means is that the person has lost memory of the events

that has occurred in their life before the brain damage. However, keep in mind that there are different kinds of memories. For example procedural memory, which is automated skills like perhaps driving a car and declarative memory (abstract facts, personal experiences) and more than often when cases of amnesia occur only one kind of memory is affected. A person with amnesia could vaguely remember details about ones identity. but still remember how to play the guitar. 

   As far as trying to treat this illness there are no medications as of right now able to aid the affects of amnesia on an individual. A person with amnesia may work with an occupational therapist to learn new information to replace what was has been lost, or to use memories that already exist as a foundation for taking in new information. Memory training may also include a variety of strategies for organizing information so that it's easier to remember and for improving understanding of a more complex conversation.

   It's a sad fact that people with amnesia may never bounce back from their illness. It just really would take a lot of patience in trying to help the individual cope with the problem. All a person with amnesia can really do is to try and practice what they are trying to remember to see if they can recognize the details. 

   Unless you've been living under a rock you would know that there is a famous movie out that demonstrates the affects of anterograde amnesia, it is called 50 First Dates ( one of my favorite movies) with Drew Barrymore, who also happens to be one of my favorite actresses! Here is a clip from the movie that demonstrates what a person with that illness would go through, I'm not sure if they are just being over-dramatic or if severe affects like that can happen like "Ten-Second Tom." 

On the left is someone who is suffering from anterograde amnesia and the right is a normal brain.

Brain Lateralization

Stroke

  In patients with aphasia (language impairment) it was found that the Broca's area would be damaged and this usually occurred because of a stroke. Broca's area is one of the main areas of the cerebral cortex responsible for producing language.  This brain area controls motor functions involved with speech production. Persons with damage to Broca's area of the brain can understand language but cannot properly form words or produce speech.

Broca's area is involved in several functions of the body including: language processing, facial neuron control and  speech production. Whenever damage occurs in the Broca's area a person will have trouble putting sentences together. 

  The usual cause of damage to the area is a stroke (an interruption of blood flow to part of the brain).

In a class that I am taking this semester one of my professors mentioned that during the day he randomly went through a mild stroke. This had affected his ability to form words and thoughts correctly. He had said that when he was trying to rely the message to his wife that he needed to go to the doctor all that would come out of his mouth was, "Bad...think...doctor." 

  As the book mentions many people who are in a great deal of pain speak as though they have Broca's aphasia. My mother who suffers from chronic lower back pain at times when she is in the middle of crying out in pain and I ask her what is wrong she blurts out words that do not really make sense. I think it's fascinating in a way how that occurs...obviously not a good thing, but it is intriguing. 

Every 45 minutes in America someone has a stroke...Here is a brief video to help you better understand how a stroke occurs. 

Brain Anatomy, Development, and Plasticity

Fetal Alcohol Syndrome   

   According to Lewis Wolpert in the text, Gastrulation is one of the early stages of embryological development. Wolpert’s point was that if you mess up in early development, you will have problems from

then on. It is a known fact that early stages of brain development are critical. A developing brain is vulnerable to malnutrition, toxic chemicals, and infections that will produce problems in later stages of life.

   An infant brain is highly vulnerable to the damage of alcohol. When a mother drinks heavily during pregnancy the child is likely to be born with what is known as fetal alcohol syndrome. The way this develops is by alcohol passing across the placenta to the fetus. There is no "safe" amount of alcohol that can be ingested and not have affect on the fetus. Alcohol use has shown to be most harmful during the first 3 months of pregnancy, but drinking at all during a pregnancy can have serious consequences. A child with fetal alcohol syndrome can develop/have: hyperactivity, impulsiveness, difficulty maintaining attention, varying degrees of mental retardation, motor problems, heart defects, and facial abnormalities.

   Studies show that when a child with fetal alcohol syndrome reaches adulthood they are more likely to develop an increase risk of alcoholism, drug dependency issues, depression, and other psychiatric problems. 

The book mentions that the mechanism of fetal alcohol syndrome probably relates to apoptosis. 

This is a sad disorder that is occurring in infants, when in all honesty can be easily prevented. I wish that the moms to be, who put their children at risk really knew all the consequences of drinking through their pregnancy...or maybe they don't even care? 

Here is a video of one family and how they deal with fetal alcohol syndrome:

Fetal alcohol syndrome is 100% preventable. I hope more people can be aware of the consequences and take a second thought before they drink while being pregnant!

Synapses, Drugs, and Addiction

  The most common used drug is considered to be marijuana. Although, marijuana is illegal it's effects appear to be promising. Marijuana leaves contain the chemical tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) and other cannabinoids.
As mentioned in the book, cannabinoids have been medically used to ease pain and nausea, help with glaucoma and also increase appetite. Marijuana can intensify a persons sensory experience and was also proven to slow down ones perception of time  As of now, purified THC has been approved for medical use in the United States, however marijuana itself is still illegal.
  The way marijuana works is that cannabinoid receptors are known to be located on the presynaptic neuron. When certain neurons are depolarized, they release anandamide or 2-AG as retrograde transmitters, which travel back to incoming axons which allow further transmitter release. Cannabinoids release dopamine indirectly.
   As we all know there are negative effects of the drug. For example, a study found that a heavy user of the drug could impair ones memory. However, users recover their normal memory back within four weeks of sustaining from the drug.
  In my personal opinion, marijuana seems to be the drug that least affects a persons mind.  If you think about it how many accidents are actually on record because someone was "high?" Now, if you compare whatever number comes to mind to those accidents that have occurred due to someone drinking and driving...you can see what I'm trying to get at.
   Here is a video I found that explains how marijuana works on the brain and how it affects the body...