Schizophrenia

   Schizophrenia is a mental disorder categorized by a breakdown of thought process and by having poor emotional responsiveness. People with this disease experience having hallucinations, delusions, disorganized speech and thinking. Schizophrenia is a disease that makes it hard to tell what is real and what is, to be able to think clearly and act normal in social situations. 

   I guess in society people with Schizophrenia are viewed as being crazy, but really in a way they just have a hard time and different way of processing things. There are different categories of this disease which are called: acute and chronic. Acute Schizophrenia has a sudden onset with a good chance of living with such a disease for recovery while the latter has a gradual onset and more of a long term outcome, meaning that people usually do not recover. The symptoms of Schizophrenia are also separated into two different groups which are "positive symptoms" and "negative symptoms." Behaviors that were initially developed because of Schizophrenia are known as the positive symptoms and behaviors that have been lessened/reduced because of Schizophrenia are referred as the negative symptoms. Here's a brief breakdown    of the symptoms: 

   

   Positive:

Hallucinations: hearing voices, seeing, feeling, or smelling things that are not actually there

Delusions: believing things that are not real or true

Disorganized speech and behavior: difficulty organizing thoughts, remembering things or keeping several ideas in mind at the same time

Paranoia: believing people or things are trying to harm you or are out to get you

   

   Negative: 

Limited emotional expression (also called a "flat affect"): a person's face does not move or he or she talks in a dull or monotonous voice

Lack of motivation: difficulty starting and following through with activities

Impaired reasoning: inability to think through actions and plan activities related to daily living

Limited speech: speaking little, even when forced to interact

Lack of pleasure in everyday life

    Genetics, early environment, neurobiology, and psychological and social processes appear to be important contributory factors; some recreational and prescription drugs appear to cause or worsen symptoms.

The research that has been done on Schizophrenia has barely scratched the surface. There are still a lot of unanswered questions regarding this disease. Approximately, 1% of people suffer from this disease. I actually have an uncle who married into my family who is a Schizophrenic. I know I mentioned earlier that maybe not all people with this disease are necessarily considered to be "crazy," but I really feel whenever he is around that he is unsafe...I can not imagine though how it may feel to live with such a disease. Hopefully, in years to come there is a better understanding of this disease.

   Here is a brief video of a day in the life of someone with this disease:

Mood disorders

Major Depressive Disorder

   I'm sure everyone at one point in their life will feel discouraged or a bit down, but usually will always be able to rise above it. However, there are some people who are not able to rise above and fall into a more intense depression. This can cause a person to feel major depression everyday for weeks at a time. In the book it mentions that, people with depression have thoughts of suicide, trouble sleeping and concentrating, find little pleasure in things that they normally enjoy, and have a hard time thinking they can be happy again.
    Major depression is diagnosed twice as often in women as it is in men. I wonder why that may be? I do kind of know more women who have said that they feel "depressed" for any little reason. There are many circumstances that can lead to someone feeling depressed such as: Alcohol or drug abuse, sleeping problems, stressful life events, such as breaking up with a boyfriend or girlfriend, failing a class,death or illness of someone close to you, divorce, childhood abuse or neglect, job loss,social isolation ( mostly common in the elderly).
   Do anti-depressants really work or do they just increase the problem? The exact cause of depression is not known...but I do know that there are different types of medication to help cure people who have depression.  Prozac and Zoloft are the most common forms of medication, but I do not think this is the right way of handling the situation because pretty soon that person is going to have to depend on the drug to help them feel better with whatever it is their experiencing. Why be dependent on a drug? I personally think that psychotherapy would be the best form of mediation. This is also referred to as talk therapy, types of talk therapy include: Cognitive behavioral therapy which teaches you how to fight off negative thoughts. As well as being taught problem solving skills. Psychotherapy can eventually help you understand the issues that may be behind your thoughts and feelings.

Here is a video where a psychiatrist better explains Major Depressive Disorder 

Here is another detailed video about non-medicated ways to deal with major depression 

Stress and Emotions

Decision Making

   Ever wondered how our emotions have an affect on our decision making? In fact, our emotions are linked to a certain part of our brain which in turn helps us distinguish what is morally right or wrong. This area of the brain is called the prefrontal cortex. The prefrontal cortex according to Wikipedia is the anterior part of the frontal lobes of the brain. The region itself is associated with planning complex cognitive behavior, personality expression, decision making and moderating social behavior. These are where your thoughts and actions develop in accordance with your internal goals.

   If you for whatever reason have some kind of damage done to your prefrontal cortex it was discovered that one can suffer from lack of emotions, irrational thinking, eratic decision making. As mentioned in the book, in the case of the man in 1994 where he experienced damage to his prerefrontal cortex he would almost express no emotions. He understood the consequences of a good or bad decision, but still did not know which one he would choose because he wouldn't know how it would make him feel.They choose the bad decision because of their lack to feel those emotions. In the book it also states that we basically make decisions based on how it will make us feel after the decision is made. So the fact that people with damage to the prefrontal cortex act more on impulse is because those senses have become damaged. 

   We base most of our important decisions on how we think it will make us feel in the long run. When you think about it there is a moral decision making behind it as well. Without having a proper functioning prefrontal cortex we would never be able to distinguish what is morally right and wrong. Like the man who experienced damage to his prefrontal cortex we would have difficulties trying to establish what is right or wrong because we would not know how they made us feel. 

I had a hard time trying to find a video that focused solely on how emotions can be affected if damage to the prefrontal cortex occurred. So, I found this brief video that explains possible cases when damage to the "frontal lobes" occurs...

Sleep

Why do some people have trouble sleeping?

   The amount of sleep that we need varies among individuals. As the book states, normally we need about 7 1/2 hours of sleep, but some people can get by with only 3 hours of sleep and feel no consequences. Which I think is pretty extraordinary considering I am among those people who treasures every moment I am sleeping. If I have not slept at least 6 hours I feel like crap. There are varied types of sleeping disorders which are referred to as insomnia, which I am sure everyone has heard the word before, but the Wikipedia definition is as follows, "inability to fall asleep or stay asleep as long as desired." The two main questions that arise when trying to diagnose someone experiencing signs of insomnia would be, "Do you experience difficulty sleeping?" or "Do you have difficulty falling or staying asleep?"

   The causes of insomnia can vary. These would include: noise, uncomfortable temperatures, stress, pain, diet,and medications, but insomnia cannot just be brought on by outside sources it can also come from problems within the body. Insomnia can also be the result of epilepsy, Parkinson’s disease, depression, brain tumors, anxiety, or other conditions. I even read in the book that some infants have trouble sleeping because they are "milk-intolerant" and their mother does not realize it and feeds them milk before bedtime. Another reason why people can suffer from insomnia is just the mere fact that before they fall asleep they are thinking about things they do not want to take on when they awake. Simply rearranging some tasks can help a person sleep better at night. 

   The book mentions about 5 different types of insomnia, but I will touch on one kind of insomnia. One branch of insomnia is referred to as sleep apnea, which is the "impaired ability to breathe while sleeping." Individuals with sleep apnea have breathless periods of more or less a minute which causes them to awaken gasping for breath.  Some people may not notice that they in fact do awaken throughout the night, but the consequences are noticeable throughout their day. They would experience things such as impaired attention, depression, being more sleepier throughout the day than usual, and sometimes heart problems. People with this condition are advised to lose weight and refrain from alcohol...imagine that.

The following brief video explains the affects of sleep apnea and the way someone can improve their condition.

Sex

   As the book states, gender identity is how we identify sexually and what we call ourselves. The differences that result from people’s thinking about themselves as male or female are gender differences.Most people will accept their gender identity which matches their external appearance. However, there are some people who have a tough time trying to adapt to the body and identity they were given. 

   A genetic male who has low levels of testosterone or a mutation of the testosterone receptors may develop a female or intermediate appearance. A genetic female who is exposed to more testosterone than the average female can be partly masculinized. The most common cause of the condition and explanation is what is known to be congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH), which is over development of

the adrenal glands from birth. People have 2 adrenal glands, one located on top of each of their kidneys. These glands make hormones, cortisol and aldosterone, that are essential for life. People who have congenital adrenal hyperplasia lack an enzyme that the adrenal gland needs to make the hormones. About 1 in 10,000 to 18,000 children are born with congenital adrenal hyperplasia.
   Symptoms will vary, depending on the type of congenital adrenal hyperplasia someone has and their age when the disorder is diagnosed. Children with milder forms may not have signs or symptoms of congenital adrenal hyperplasia and may not be diagnosed until as late as adolescence. Girls with a more severe form often have abnormal genitals at birth and may be diagnosed before symptoms appear. Boys will appear normal at birth even if they have a more severe form. There is also a milder form of CAH. Girls with a milder form with have symptoms such as abnormal menstrual cycles or lack of one, excessive hair or facial growth, early appearance of pubic or armpit hair. Boys with the milder form would appear normal at birth, but would more than likely go through puberty at an earlier age. 

   I would not call this a disease, but I would refer to this as some sort of abnormality. There is treatment for trying to regulate the persons body to the sex that they are meant to be, like medications. There is other routes such as having surgery to correct abnormal looking genitals so that it looks like the person is only one sex. This is something that can confuse any person, especially when they are younger and they are trying to figure out who they are. Having congenital adrenal hyperplasia can be a really hard thing to live on, but there are support groups for people who are going through such things and treatment available...Here is a video that talks about the risks of having CAH and how dangerous it can be if not detected early on in life. 

  

Pain, Olfaction, Pheromones, and Synaesthesia

   Pain is an unpleasant feeling often caused by intense or damaging stimuli that is triggered in the nervous system. Pain can be sharp or dull. It maybe come or go or it can have lasting affects. Examples of pain are: stubbing a toe, burning a finger, putting alcohol on a cut, and bumping the "funny bone." You could feel pain in one area of the body or all over (ex. when muscles ache because of the flu.)

   Medical experts would say that pain is  necessary in determining certain types of medical problems. Without the feeling of pain a person might not know that they have problems within their body. Pain motivates the individual to withdraw from damaging situations, to protect a damaged body part while it heals, and to avoid similar experiences in the future. But what about those who simply cannot feel pain? They would have a complex/dangerous life considering they would never know their limits. Imagine having to constantly care for someone who cannot feel pain. Something daily such as eating, taking a shower, using the restroom could result in a serious injury.

   I found an interesting video about a little girl who was diagnosed with

Hereditary Sensory Autonomic Neuropathy. Within this disease there are also different types of sub ones that stem from HSA. This is a rare condition that has only been diagnosed in a handful of people and affects the sensory nerves. This is a disease in which you cannot feel pain and anything you do can cause a risk to your health. I find this to be very sad and I hope we can advance in the research towards this disease to hopefully be able to find a cause and a way of preventing or treating it...

 

Learning, Memory, and Amnesia

Amnesia 

   This is a condition in which one's memory is lost. The memory can be either completely or partially lost due to the extent of damage that was caused. . Memory appears to be stored in several parts of the limbic system of the brain.These structures include the thalamus, which lies within the center of your brain, and the hippocampal formations, which are located within the temporal lobes of your brain. Any condition that interferes with the function of this system can cause amnesia.Possible causes of amnesia include, but are not limited to: stroke, brain inflammation, long-term alcohol abuse, and tumors in areas of brain that control memory. 

   People with amnesia usually know who they are, but may have trouble learning new information and forming new memories this is what is referred to as anterograde amnesia. Another component of this illness is called, retrograde amnesia what this means is that the person has lost memory of the events

that has occurred in their life before the brain damage. However, keep in mind that there are different kinds of memories. For example procedural memory, which is automated skills like perhaps driving a car and declarative memory (abstract facts, personal experiences) and more than often when cases of amnesia occur only one kind of memory is affected. A person with amnesia could vaguely remember details about ones identity. but still remember how to play the guitar. 

   As far as trying to treat this illness there are no medications as of right now able to aid the affects of amnesia on an individual. A person with amnesia may work with an occupational therapist to learn new information to replace what was has been lost, or to use memories that already exist as a foundation for taking in new information. Memory training may also include a variety of strategies for organizing information so that it's easier to remember and for improving understanding of a more complex conversation.

   It's a sad fact that people with amnesia may never bounce back from their illness. It just really would take a lot of patience in trying to help the individual cope with the problem. All a person with amnesia can really do is to try and practice what they are trying to remember to see if they can recognize the details. 

   Unless you've been living under a rock you would know that there is a famous movie out that demonstrates the affects of anterograde amnesia, it is called 50 First Dates ( one of my favorite movies) with Drew Barrymore, who also happens to be one of my favorite actresses! Here is a clip from the movie that demonstrates what a person with that illness would go through, I'm not sure if they are just being over-dramatic or if severe affects like that can happen like "Ten-Second Tom." 

On the left is someone who is suffering from anterograde amnesia and the right is a normal brain.

Brain Lateralization

Stroke

  In patients with aphasia (language impairment) it was found that the Broca's area would be damaged and this usually occurred because of a stroke. Broca's area is one of the main areas of the cerebral cortex responsible for producing language.  This brain area controls motor functions involved with speech production. Persons with damage to Broca's area of the brain can understand language but cannot properly form words or produce speech.

Broca's area is involved in several functions of the body including: language processing, facial neuron control and  speech production. Whenever damage occurs in the Broca's area a person will have trouble putting sentences together. 

  The usual cause of damage to the area is a stroke (an interruption of blood flow to part of the brain).

In a class that I am taking this semester one of my professors mentioned that during the day he randomly went through a mild stroke. This had affected his ability to form words and thoughts correctly. He had said that when he was trying to rely the message to his wife that he needed to go to the doctor all that would come out of his mouth was, "Bad...think...doctor." 

  As the book mentions many people who are in a great deal of pain speak as though they have Broca's aphasia. My mother who suffers from chronic lower back pain at times when she is in the middle of crying out in pain and I ask her what is wrong she blurts out words that do not really make sense. I think it's fascinating in a way how that occurs...obviously not a good thing, but it is intriguing. 

Every 45 minutes in America someone has a stroke...Here is a brief video to help you better understand how a stroke occurs. 

Brain Anatomy, Development, and Plasticity

Fetal Alcohol Syndrome   

   According to Lewis Wolpert in the text, Gastrulation is one of the early stages of embryological development. Wolpert’s point was that if you mess up in early development, you will have problems from

then on. It is a known fact that early stages of brain development are critical. A developing brain is vulnerable to malnutrition, toxic chemicals, and infections that will produce problems in later stages of life.

   An infant brain is highly vulnerable to the damage of alcohol. When a mother drinks heavily during pregnancy the child is likely to be born with what is known as fetal alcohol syndrome. The way this develops is by alcohol passing across the placenta to the fetus. There is no "safe" amount of alcohol that can be ingested and not have affect on the fetus. Alcohol use has shown to be most harmful during the first 3 months of pregnancy, but drinking at all during a pregnancy can have serious consequences. A child with fetal alcohol syndrome can develop/have: hyperactivity, impulsiveness, difficulty maintaining attention, varying degrees of mental retardation, motor problems, heart defects, and facial abnormalities.

   Studies show that when a child with fetal alcohol syndrome reaches adulthood they are more likely to develop an increase risk of alcoholism, drug dependency issues, depression, and other psychiatric problems. 

The book mentions that the mechanism of fetal alcohol syndrome probably relates to apoptosis. 

This is a sad disorder that is occurring in infants, when in all honesty can be easily prevented. I wish that the moms to be, who put their children at risk really knew all the consequences of drinking through their pregnancy...or maybe they don't even care? 

Here is a video of one family and how they deal with fetal alcohol syndrome:

Fetal alcohol syndrome is 100% preventable. I hope more people can be aware of the consequences and take a second thought before they drink while being pregnant!

Synapses, Drugs, and Addiction

  The most common used drug is considered to be marijuana. Although, marijuana is illegal it's effects appear to be promising. Marijuana leaves contain the chemical tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) and other cannabinoids.
As mentioned in the book, cannabinoids have been medically used to ease pain and nausea, help with glaucoma and also increase appetite. Marijuana can intensify a persons sensory experience and was also proven to slow down ones perception of time  As of now, purified THC has been approved for medical use in the United States, however marijuana itself is still illegal.
  The way marijuana works is that cannabinoid receptors are known to be located on the presynaptic neuron. When certain neurons are depolarized, they release anandamide or 2-AG as retrograde transmitters, which travel back to incoming axons which allow further transmitter release. Cannabinoids release dopamine indirectly.
   As we all know there are negative effects of the drug. For example, a study found that a heavy user of the drug could impair ones memory. However, users recover their normal memory back within four weeks of sustaining from the drug.
  In my personal opinion, marijuana seems to be the drug that least affects a persons mind.  If you think about it how many accidents are actually on record because someone was "high?" Now, if you compare whatever number comes to mind to those accidents that have occurred due to someone drinking and driving...you can see what I'm trying to get at.
   Here is a video I found that explains how marijuana works on the brain and how it affects the body...

Schwann Cells to potentially cure paralysis

   First let me start by explaining what Schwann cells are. Schwann cells are a type of cell that is found throughout the entire peripheral nervous system. Schwann cells are a type of "support" cell in the peripheral nervous system. They insulate individual nerve fibers (which are called axons), that are necessary for sending appropriate electrical signals throughout the nervous system.

   This explanation can be a bit confusing so I went ahead and researched the word, Schwann cells by itself. I stumbled upon the Miami Project Cure Paralysis. It turns out that Schwann cells are linked to paralysis and the FDA has approved a clinical trial to safely transplant human Schwann cells into patients with paralysis. Researchers believe since Schwann cells are responsible for sending electrical signals that it could possibly lead to the discovery of curing Paralysis. What researchers hope that will occur is that the Schwann cells will potentially act like stem cells. A research study has already been done at the University of Miami, on lab animals where they repaired central nervous system injuries using their own Schwann cells and the procedure helped the animals significantly.
    If in fact the researchers are correct and Schwann cells possibly react like Stem cells they can help find a cure for people with paralysis. They will be using actual human subjects for this research so I hope no one gets hurt more from the process.

I will include an interesting video that I found regarding the Miami Project Cure Paralysis just to give you a better understanding...

Spinal Cord Therapy Approved by FDA | Video - ABC News

The Use of Animals in Research

     There is a huge controversial issue on whether or not animals should be used for scientific research. Many people would agree that animal research would be considered okay if it were to be for the greater good of the human society as a whole.

     At first, I would agree with that statement, but after watching youtube videos on what really goes on behind the scenes during animal research it kind of made me alter my opinion a bit. It is a known fact that laboratory animals do go through painful procedures that do not benefit them in any way. Reasons why humans conduct research on animals are because we are interested in animal behavior itself,  evolution of behavior and because the experiments that are conducted on animals cannot be done on humans. I would say logically speaking if we did not have animal research we would not be as advanced in findings that help understand certain diseases. 

    In some cases, animal subjects are treated horribly, but a new legal standard has developed to help protect the rights of animals. I will include a video that briefly describes the "The three R's".

Although, this standard cannot stop all researchers from treating their subjects badly, but it is a closer step to ensuring that animal subjects are treated better.

    Another issue that does not settle well with people is the fact that if it is observed an animal is undergoing too much pain throughout an experiment they are put to sleep to end the pain. I believe that is a better alternative, rather than allowing the animal to suffer. A person might argue who is the researcher to take another animals life, but I believe it is an ethical decision. I would rather the animal be put out of its misery than to continue suffering.